• • • On the Origin of Species (or more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life), published on 24 November 1859, is a work of by which is considered to be the foundation of. Darwin's book introduced the that populations over the course of generations through a process of. It presented a body of evidence that arose by through a.

Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation. Had already been proposed to explain. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the, while science was part of. Jake One Snare Jordan Free Download.

Now even more affordably priced in its second edition, Classic and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Education is ideal for undergraduate and graduate philosophy of education courses. Editor Steven M. Cahn, a highly respected contributor to the field, brings together writings by leading figures in the history of. On the Origin of Species published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection.

Ideas about the were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream. The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by and his fellow members of the to science by promoting. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate.

During ' from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the.

Darwin pictured shortly before publication Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key and the drawn from them, which biologist summarised as follows: • Every is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce, the population would grow (fact). • Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size (fact). • Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time (fact). • A struggle for survival ensues (inference).

• Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another (fact). • Much of this variation is (fact). • Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of (fact).

• This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species (inference). Background [ ]. See also: and Developments before Darwin's theory [ ] In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher. Early and scholars interpreted the allegorically rather than as a literal historical account; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and of life.

Cuvier's 1799 paper on living and fossil elephants helped establish the reality of. The inspired, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an seeking explanations congruent with the of and the of the. After the turmoil of the, the wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. Developed an influential of rational order; in his, were static and fixed, their adaptation and complexity designed by God, and showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by was a. The introduced by in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, suggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, might be varieties descended from a common ancestor.

The of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. Thought were, but proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating.

Charles Darwin's grandfather outlined a hypothesis of in the 1790s, and published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Contended that transformations of organisms in past when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated. Strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs.

His in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species. In Britain, 's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial acting through natural laws. All naturalists in the two English universities ( and ) were clergymen, and science became a search for these laws.

Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the. Some anatomists such as were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order. In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his 'B' notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote 'I think' above his first. In December 1831, he joined the as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read 's and from the first stop ashore, at, found a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their 'centre of creation'.

The three missionaries the expedition returned to were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed 'miserable, degraded savages', and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed. Showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist announced that was a separate species from the previously described (though their territories overlapped), that collected on the represented three separate species each a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that 'one species does change into another' to explain these findings, and around July sketched a branching of a single, discarding Lamarck's independent progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of and as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the seemed.

In late September 1838, he started reading 's with that human populations, if unrestrained, breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist 'warring of the species' in plants; he immediately envisioned 'a force like a hundred thousand wedges' pushing well-adapted variations into 'gaps in the economy of nature', so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed.

By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by 'chance' so that 'every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected'. Darwin now had the basic framework of his theory of natural selection, but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held back from compiling it until his book on was completed.

As he recalled in his autobiography, he had 'at last got a theory by which to work', but it was only in June 1842 that he allowed himself 'the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil'. Further development [ ]. See also: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage.

He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page 'Pencil Sketch' of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his 'sketch' into a 230-page 'Essay', to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely. Darwin researched how the skulls of different pigeon breeds varied, as shown in his Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication of 1868. In November 1844, the anonymously published book, written by Scottish journalist, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors.

Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s. Hooker was persuaded to take away a copy of the 'Essay' in January 1847, and eventually sent a page of notes giving Darwin much needed feedback. Reminded of his lack of expertise in, Darwin began an eight-year study of, becoming the leading expert on their classification. Using his theory, he discovered showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and he found an in the evolution of.

Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution.

He now realised that the branching pattern of was explained by natural selection working constantly to improve adaptation. His thinking changed from the view that, as on islands, to an emphasis on; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son ) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence. Main article: Time taken to publish [ ] In his autobiography, Darwin said he had 'gained much by my delay in publishing from about 1839, when the theory was clearly conceived, to 1859; and I lost nothing by it'. On the first page of his 1859 book he noted that, having begun work on the topic in 1837, he had drawn up 'some short notes' after five years, had enlarged these into a sketch in 1844, and 'from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object.'

Various biographers have proposed that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Caused repeated delays. His paper on had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. Has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time. A more recent study by science historian has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another.

While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His 1846 estimate that writing his 'big book' would take five years proved optimistic. Events leading to publication: 'big book' manuscript [ ]. A photograph of Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) taken in in 1862 An 1855 paper on the 'introduction' of species, written by, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper.

He met Lyell, and in correspondence with affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a 'sketch' account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species as his 'big book' on. His theory including the principle of was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

Joint publication of papers by Wallace and Darwin [ ] Darwin was hard at work on the manuscript for his 'big book' on, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the ( and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile.

The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that 'your words have come true with a vengeance. Forestalled' and he would 'of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal' that Wallace chose, adding that 'all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed'. Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction.

While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing rather than selection acting on individual variation. Abstract of Species book [ ] Soon after the meeting, Darwin decided to write 'an abstract of my whole work' in the form of one or more papers to be published by the, but was concerned about 'how it can be made scientific for a Journal, without giving facts, which would be impossible.' He asked Hooker how many pages would be available, but 'If the Referees were to reject it as not strictly scientific I would, perhaps publish it as pamphet.'

He began his 'abstract of Species book' on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at, and wrote parts of it from memory, while sending the manuscripts to his friends for checking. By early October, he began to 'expect my abstract will run into a small volume, which will have to be published separately.' Over the same period, he continued to collect information and write large fully detailed sections of the manuscript for his 'big book' on Species,. Murray as publisher; choice of title [ ] By mid March 1859 Darwin's abstract had reached the stage where he was thinking of early publication; Lyell suggested the publisher, and met with him to find if he would be willing to publish. On 28 March Darwin wrote to Lyell asking about progress, and offering to give Murray assurances 'that my Book is not more un-orthodox, than the subject makes inevitable.' He enclosed a draft title sheet proposing An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, with the year shown as ' 1859'. Murray's response was favourable, and a very pleased Darwin told Lyell on 30 March that he would 'send shortly a large bundle of M.S.

But unfortunately I cannot for a week, as the three first chapters are in three copyists’ hands'. He bowed to Murray's objection to 'abstract' in the title, though he felt it excused the lack of references, but wanted to keep 'natural selection' which was 'constantly used in all works on Breeding', and hoped 'to retain it with Explanation, somewhat as thus',— Through Natural Selection or the preservation of favoured races. On 31 March Darwin wrote to Murray in confirmation, and listed headings of the 12 chapters in progress: he had drafted all except 'XII.

Recapitulation & Conclusion'. Murray responded immediately with an agreement to publish the book on the same terms as he published Lyell, without even seeing the manuscript: he offered Darwin ​ 2⁄ 3 of the profits. Darwin promptly accepted with pleasure, insisting that Murray would be free to withdraw the offer if, having read the chapter manuscripts, he felt the book would not sell well. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.

) On 5 April, Darwin sent Murray the first three chapters, and a proposal for the book's title. An early draft title page suggests On the Mutability of Species.

Murray cautiously asked to review the chapters. At Lyell's suggestion, Elwin recommended that, rather than 'put forth the theory without the evidence', the book should focus on observations upon, briefly stating how these illustrated Darwin's general principles and preparing the way for the larger work expected shortly: 'Every body is interested in pigeons.' Darwin responded that this was impractical: he had only the last chapter still to write. In September the main title still included ' An essay on the origin of species and varieties', but Darwin now proposed dropping 'varieties'.

With Murray's persuasion, the title was eventually agreed as On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. In this extended title (and elsewhere in the book) Darwin used the biological term ' interchangeably with ', meaning varieties within a. He used the term broadly, and as well as discussions of 'the several races, for instance, of the cabbage' and 'the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants', there are three instances in the book where the phrase 'races of man' is used, referring to of humans.

Publication and subsequent editions [ ] On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from, and the phrase 'by the Creator' added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions.

The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase ', which had been coined by the philosopher in his Principles of Biology (1864). In January 1871, 's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word ' which had commonly been associated with, though all editions concluded with the word 'evolved' ), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments. The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 as The Origin of Species, with 'On' dropped from the title. Darwin had told Murray of working men in clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings and wanted it made more widely available; the price was halved to 7 6 by printing in a smaller. It includes a glossary compiled by W.S. Book sales increased from 60 to 250 per month.

Publication outside Great Britain [ ]. American botanist Asa Gray (1810–1888) In the United States, botanist, an American colleague of Darwin, negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew.

In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year. The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated 'favoured races' as 'perfected races', and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack.

Darwin corresponded closely with, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating and, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876.

A Dutch translation by was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages. 's illustration of was published in 1841.

The existence of two rhea species with overlapping ranges influenced Darwin. Page ii contains quotations by and on the theology of, harmonising science and religion in accordance with 's belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos. In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. The Introduction establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author, then refers to 's letter suggesting that the origin of species 'would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process': WHEN on board HMS Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent.

These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species, and to that of the and. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion, which led him to 'publish this Abstract' of his incomplete work. He outlines his ideas, and sets out the essence of his theory: As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. Starting with the third edition, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a sketch of the historical development of evolutionary ideas. In that sketch he acknowledged that had, unknown to Wallace or himself, anticipated the concept of natural selection in an appendix to a book published in 1831; in the fourth edition he mentioned that had done so as early as 1813.

Variation under domestication and under nature [ ] Chapter I covers and, going back to. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors. As an illustration of, he describes breeding, noting that '[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing', yet all were descended from one species of.

Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called 'sports' or 'monstrosities' (example: with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution. In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between and is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that 'a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species' and that 'species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties'. He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature.

Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.

Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence [ ] In Chapter III, Darwin asks how varieties 'which I have called incipient species' become distinct species, and in answer introduces the key concept he calls '; in the fifth edition he adds, 'But the expression often used by Mr., of the, is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient.' Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring.

I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. He notes that both and had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition.

Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase ' in 'a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another'; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: 'It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms.' He discusses checks to such increase including complex interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms 'which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature'. Chapter IV details natural selection under the 'infinitely complex and close-fitting. Mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life'. Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying: But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle apply in nature?

I believe it can and does apply most efficiently, from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure, constitution, and habits, by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to increase in numbers. Historians have remarked that here Darwin anticipated the modern concept of an. He did not suggest that every favourable variation must be selected, nor that the favoured animals were better or higher, but merely more adapted to their surroundings.

In the 1870s, British caricatures of Darwin with an body contributed to the identification of with. The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate, with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications. Much of the initial reaction was hostile, in a large part because very few reviewers actually understood his theory, but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science.

There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication, which had been rejected by scientists, but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws. The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals, and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work, though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges.

Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term was used to cover the whole range of, not just his own ideas. By the mid-1870s, evolutionism was triumphant. While Darwin had been somewhat coy about human origins, not identifying any explicit conclusion on the matter in his book, he had dropped enough hints about human's animal ancestry for the inference to be made, and the first review claimed it made a creed of the 'men from monkeys' idea from Vestiges. Became central to the debate and was strongly argued by who featured it in his popular 'working-men's lectures'.

Darwin did not publish his own views on this until 1871. The of conflicted with presumptions of and while this could be reconciled by, other mechanisms implying more progress or purpose were more acceptable.

Had already incorporated into his popular philosophy of progressive human society. He popularised the terms evolution and, and many thought Spencer was central to evolutionary thinking. Impact on the scientific community [ ]. See also: Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague 'law of development' of Vestiges had not found scientific favour.

Darwin presented as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the of 's, while opponents held to the idealist school of 's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying and ecology, including in 1860, and in 1862.

Presented research in 1861 that explained using natural selection. Discussed evidence from his research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the. Used illustrations to show that humans and apes had the same basic skeletal structure. Evolution had less obvious applications to and, and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist. Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's was sufficient without to cause. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 promoted over natural theology, praising Darwin for 'extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated' and coining the term ' as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science. Huxley gained influence, and initiated the, which used the journal to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science.

Later, the German morphologist would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and could be used to reconstruct. The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist, an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan. Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a plan in a continuous 'ordained becoming', with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported 'creation by birth', included the who explained beauty in plumage by design.

Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the meeting featuring the legendary. In two years of acrimonious public dispute that satirised as the ' and parodied in as the 'great hippopotamus test', Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains.

Others, including and, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the (1871). Impact outside Great Britain [ ]. Haeckel showed a main trunk leading to mankind with minor branches to various animals, unlike Darwin's branching evolutionary tree. Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of in from 's and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. 's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. Was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of.

Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in. Haeckel used extensively in his, which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching. Promoted and defended Origin against those American naturalists with an idealist approach, notably who viewed every species as a distinct fixed unit in the mind of the Creator, classifying as species what others considered merely varieties. And reconciled this view with evolutionism in a form of involving recapitulation theory. French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism.

The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by and by, who had the character Levin in his novel voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views. Challenges to natural selection [ ] There were serious scientific objections to the process of as the key mechanism of evolution, including 's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the allowed gradual evolution was disputed by, who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years.

Darwin accepted, but calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. Supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century. By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during ' included forms of ' in which new species were thought to arise through 'jumps' rather than gradual adaptation, forms of claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress.

The minority view of, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called. It was thought that the rediscovery of invalidated Darwin's views. Impact on economic and political debates [ ] While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further.

Some political commentaries, including 's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of over non white races and justify European. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work.

Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry. Religious attitudes [ ] The book produced a wide range of religious responses at a time of changing ideas and increasing secularisation. The issues raised were complex and there was a large middle ground. Meant that there was little opposition based on a literal reading of, but defence of the and was central to debates over the book in the English-speaking world. The liberal theologian defended evolutionary ideas by arguing that the introduction of new species should be considered a natural rather than a miraculous process.

Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful. In the Church of England, some interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as 'just as noble a conception of Deity'. In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as 'a celebrated cleric', and added the phrase 'by the Creator' to the closing sentence, which from then on read 'life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one'. While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted, Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature, and even in the first edition there are several references to 'creation'. Praised 'Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature'. In America, argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism.

Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as were favoured over as being more compatible with purpose. Even though the book did not explicitly spell out Darwin's beliefs about, it had dropped a number of hints about human's animal ancestry and quickly became central to the debate, as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature.

While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, argued in his 1874 critique 'What is Darwinism?' That ', defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design.

Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text. By the early 20th century, four noted authors of were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution, but inspired the American that began in the 1920s. Some conservative writers and influential opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. The stated its in a, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching. Modern influence [ ]. A modern based on analysis shows the.

Various alternative evolutionary mechanisms favoured during ' became untenable as more was learned about inheritance and. The full significance of was at last accepted in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the.

During that synthesis biologists and statisticians, including, and, merged Darwinian selection with a statistical understanding of. Continues to develop. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, with its tree-like model of branching, has become the unifying theory of the. The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment. It makes sense of the, biogeography, parallels in development,,,, and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as and agriculture. Despite the scientific consensus, a religion-based political has developed over how evolution is taught in schools, especially in the United States.

Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the, about his life and work. The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a, detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959, and a, an exhaustive external index published in 1981. Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrated the ideas which 'over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it'.

In a survey conducted by a group of academic booksellers, publishers and librarians in advance of Academic Book Week in the United Kingdom, On the Origin of Species was voted the most influential academic book ever written. It was hailed as 'the supreme demonstration of why academic books matter' and 'a book which has changed the way we think about everything'. See also [ ] • • – full text at of the first edition, 1859 • – full text at Wikisource of the 6th edition, 1872 • • • • • •, published in 1871; his second major book on. • ^ • ^ The book's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. In the 1872 sixth edition 'On' was omitted, so the full title is The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. This edition is usually known as The Origin of Species.

The 6th is Darwin's final edition; there were minor modifications in the text of certain subsequent issues. See Freeman, R. ' In Van Wyhe, John, ed. Darwin Online: On the Origin of Species, 2002.

Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 24 November 2014. •, pp. 479–480 •, p.

• Aristotle,, translated by Hardie, R. And Gayle, R. And hosted by MIT's Internet Classics Archive, retrieved 23 April 2009 •, pp. 26–27 •, pp. 27, 43, 45 •, pp. 27–36, 39–42, 57–62, 67, 70, 77–80 •, pp. 84–90 •, pp. 47–54 •, pp. 111–114 •, pp. 91, 129 •, pp. 115–117 •, pp. 34–35 •, pp. 80–88 •, pp. 148–149 •, pp. 133–140 •, pp. 56–62 •, pp.

•, pp. 244–250 •, pp. • •, pp. 24–25 •, pp. •, p. 44 •, retrieved 16 March 2009 •, pp. 240–244 • ^ •, pp. 66–70 •, retrieved 8 April 2009 •, retrieved 14 March 2009 • ^, pp. •, p. 436 •, p. •, p. 292 •, pp. 436–437 •, p. 188 •, retrieved 24 November 2008 •, pp. 461–465 •, pp. 135–140 • ^, pp. 169–173 •, pp. •, pp. 138–142 •, p.

•, pp. 84–92 • Wallace, Alfred R. (1855),, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 16 (93): 184–196,: • ^, pp. 135–158 •.

Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 21 March 2016.. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 21 March 2016. •, retrieved 15 March 2008 •, pp. 74–75 •, pp. 162–163 •, pp. 175–176 •, pp. 61–63 • ^. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 17 January 2017.

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Retrieved 7 September 2010. It [geographical distribution] was nearly all written from memory •. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 17 January 2017. See letter to T. Eyton, 4 October (1858), in which CD first mentioned the possibility that his ‘abstract’ would form a small volume. Darwin Correspondence Project.

Retrieved 16 January 2017. Would you advise me to tell Murray that my Book is not more un-orthodox, than the subject makes inevitable. That I do not discuss origin of man.— That I do not bring in any discussions about Genesis &c, & only give facts, & such conclusions from them, as seem to me fair. (1859) APS-B-D25.L[.38] Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker, edited by John van Wyhe • ^, p. 306. Darwin Correspondence Project.

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Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 16 January 2017. [early draft title of Origin] [& other notes] CUL-DAR205.1.70 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker, edited by John van Wyhe •. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 16 January 2017. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 16 January 2017.

Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 16 January 2017. 24 August 2000. Ras Michael Rastafari Dub Rar Files. Retrieved 27 June 2016. • Robert Bernasconi; Tommy Lee Lott (2000).. Hackett Publishing. The full title [of the book] employs the term 'race' only in the broad biological use of the word, which refers to varieties throughout organic life; however, speculation about the implications of his views specifically for the question of the human races began almost as soon as the book was published.

•, p., Quote: 'There nonetheless are a few cases in which Darwin does discuss selection processes in which groups are the units, and these will be the focus of the present chapter. But even here it does not matter whether the groups are from different 'races' or from the same race. It is nests of honeybees that compete with each other, and human tribes that compete with other human tribes. For Darwin, the question of group selection had nothing special to do with 'race.' Still, writing in the heyday of empire, Darwin saw European nations outcompeting the nations, kingdoms, and tribes that occupy the rest of the globe. In this one very salient example, Darwin did see races struggling with each other. In any event, the word race in Darwin’s subtitle needs to be understood very broadly; it encompasses competition among individuals, competition among groups in the same 'race,' and competition from groups from different 'races.'

This is a much broader meaning than the word 'race' tends to have today.' • the three instances of the phrase 'races of man' are found on, pp., and.

Hunter (1988). Asa Gray, American Botanist, Friend of Darwin. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. •, p. 89 •, p. • ^, pp. 95–96 •, p. • 'This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr.

Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.' • ^ •, p. 59 •, pp..

'Evolution' in the transformist sense had been used by in 1832, vol 2,; and was used by Darwin in in 1871, onwards. • ^, pp. 577, 582, 590, 592–593 •, retrieved 6 December 2008 •, retrieved 6 December 2008 •, retrieved 6 December 2008 •, p. 492 • ^, pp. 256–259 • ^, pp. 140–142 • ^, archived from on 5 June 2010, retrieved 6 March 2009 •, retrieved 6 March 2009 • ^, pp. 142–144 • Ch. Darwin, Het ontstaan der soorten van dieren en planten door middel van de natuurkeus of het bewaard blijven van bevoorregte rassen in de strijd des levens, transl. By (Haarlem 1860) Source: Lecture by MA at the Congress of the European Botanical and Horticultural Libraries Group, Prague, 23 April 2009 •. • •, p. 510 •, p. 197 •, p..

•, p. 1 •, p.. •, p. 7 • ^, pp. 184–186 •, pp.

• ^ David Reznick (2009) The Origin Then and Now, Princeton University Press, p.49. •, p. 44 • ^, pp. •, p. 189 •, pp. •, p. 85 •, p. •, pp. 86–87 •, pp. •, pp. 159–167 •, pp.

• (8 February 2003).. The Guardian. Retrieved 24 October 2010. •, pp. 200–201 • • McBride, P. D., Gillman, L. N., & Wright, S.

Current debates on the origin of species. Journal of Biological Education, 43(3), 104–107. • Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE; Byerly; Hopf; Michod (December 1985). 'Sex and the emergence of species'. 117 (4): 665–90... CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list () • Michod, Richard E. Eros and evolution: a natural philosophy of sex.

Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. •, pp. 194–199, pp., Quote: 'We are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations; and we are immediately made conscious of this by reflecting on the differences in the breeds of our domesticated animals in different countries' •, p. 199, p., Quote: ' I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man.' • ^, p. 182 • ^ (1996),, retrieved 30 April 2009 •, pp. • •, p. 108 •, pp. Quote: 'When the views entertained in this volume on the origin of species, or when analogous views are generally admitted, we can dimly foresee that there will be a considerable revolution in natural history.'

•, p., p., Quote: ' this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth.' • ^, pp. 508–511 •, pp. 183–188 • ^, pp. 180–181 •, pp. 190, 200–201 •, pp. 88–89 •, p. xvii • •, pp. 176–181 •, p. ix • ^ (2003).. Broadview Press. •, p. 42, quoting (February to July 1838) pp. 196–197 'Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work worthy the interposition of a deity, more humble & I believe truer to consider him created from animals.'

•, pp. 412–441, 457–458, 462–463, pp. 283–284, 290–292, 295 •. Darwin Correspondence Project. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 18 September 2017. • For example,, p. 60, 'In this book, he was completely silent on the subject of human origins, although he did refer in several places to mankind as an example of biological details. The only words he allowed himself—and these out of a sense of duty that he must somewhere refer to human beings–were gnomic in their brevity. 'Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history'.'

•, p., Quote: 'There is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate, that if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years, and at this rate, in a few thousand years, there would literally not be standing room for his progeny.' •, p., Quote: 'What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?'

, p., Quote: 'The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications.' Notebook C, CUL-DAR122.- Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker.

(Darwin Online), notes from de Beer, Gavin ed. Darwin's notebooks on transmutation of species. Second notebook [C] (February to July 1838). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). Historical Series 2, No. •, pp. 139–141, quotes 'our acquiring the instinct one notion of beauty & negroes another' from Darwin, C.

Notebook M: [Metaphysics on morals and speculations on expression (1838)]. CUL-DAR125.- Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker, edited by Paul Barrett.

(Darwin Online, p. •, pp. 290–291Stauffer, R.

Charles Darwin's Natural Selection; being the second part of his big species book written from 1856 to 1858. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapter Vi On Natural Selection first draft, completed on March 31, 1857, [The outline of this original form of the chapter appears in the original table of contents] '63 [pencil addition] Theory applied to Races of Man.'

• ^, p., Quote: 'During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views.' • See also, pp., Quote: 'My Descent of Man was published in Feb. As soon as I had become, in the year 1837 or 1838, convinced that species were mutable productions, I could not avoid the belief that man must come under the same law. Accordingly I collected notes on the subject for my own satisfaction, and not for a long time with any intention of publishing.

Although in the Origin of Species, the derivation of any particular species is never discussed, yet I thought it best, in order that no honourable man should accuse me of concealing my views, to add that by the work in question 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history.' It would have been useless and injurious to the success of the book to have paraded without giving any evidence my conviction with respect to his origin.' •, pp., Quote: 'During many years it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual selection has played an important part in differentiating the races of man; but in my 'Origin of Species' (first edition, p. 199) I contented myself by merely alluding to this belief.' •, pp. 376–379 • ^, pp. 48–49 • ^, pp. 177–180 • •, pp. 102–103 •, p. 488 • ^, pp. 174–175, p. 88 •, p. 87 • •, pp. 207–209 • •, pp. 203–207, 220–222 •, pp. 179–180, 197–198 •, pp. 183–184, 189 •, p. 208 • ^, pp. 184–185 •, pp. 105–106 • •, p. 184 •, p. 108 •, pp. 124–126 •, pp. 490–491, 545–547 •, p. 512 • •, pp. 464–465, 493–499 •, pp. 160–161 •, pp. 208–211, 214–216 • ^, pp. 169–170, 190–192 • ^, pp. 186–187, 237, 241 • Dupree, pp. 216–232 •, pp. 198–200, 234–236 •, p. 225 • ^, pp. 205–234 •, pp. 294–307 • ^, pp. 202–208 •, p. 26 •, pp. 89–92 •, p. 139 • ^, Darwin Correspondence Project, 2007, archived from on 21 October 2014, retrieved 17 September 2008 •, retrieved 11 April 2009 •, p. 119 • •, p..

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•: •, bibliography of – links to text and images of all six British editions of The Origin of Species, the 6th edition with additions and corrections (final text), the first American edition, and translations into Danish, Dutch, French, German, Polish, Russian and Spanish. •, showing every change between the six British editions. • • on at the.

•, full text with embedded audio. • •, University Library, Cambridge. • • View online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library 1860 American edition, D Appleton and Company, New York, with front insert by H.

Barker, Lincolniana. • digitised in.